1974 FIFA World Cup: East Beats West

“West Germany weren’t half as impressive in the early matches as Holland. They fell to an embarrassing defeat in the group stage to East Germany, though that proved a more political and ideological blow than a sporting one, given it sent them into the easier second-stage group alongside Poland, Sweden and Yugoslavia. Or, to put it another way, Not Holland, Not Holland, and Not Holland.”

World Cup Stunning Moments: the Cruyff Turn is born in 1974 – S. Murray, The Guardian, Sunday 27th May 2018, (accessed online: 28/06/18)

The 1974 FIFA World Cup is perhaps best remembered for the emergence of arguably one of the greatest international sides to ever grace the game. The Netherlands team, captained by the exceptional Johan Cruyff, are credited with the invention of ‘Total Football’ which revolutionised the global game with its fluid tactical structure where all eleven players were expected to change positions and pass the ball with ease. The Dutch national side reached the final of both the 1974 and 1978 FIFA World Cup and the development of this system saw them dominate European competitions in the early 1970s. Ajax Amsterdam, its major proponents, won the European Cup in three successive seasons between 1971 and 1973 while Feyenoord Rotterdam and PSV Eindhoven also won major trophies during the decade.

Despite their iconic status during this period the Netherlands failed to win either of the World Cup finals they contested in the 1970s losing on both occasions to the host nations: respectively West Germany in 1974 and Argentina in 1978. The West Germany side of 1974 were by no means a traditionally structured side with centre-back Franz Beckenbauer and left-back Paul Breitner well known for their passing ability and marauding forward runs, the creative flair of midfielder Wolfgang Overath and the goal scoring prowess of centre forward Gerd Muller. Their performances in the latter stages of the 1974 tournament were not short of entertaining and skilful football, however, this could be seen as a reaction to their embarrassing group stage defeat to their nearest neighbours, and political rivals, East Germany.

As discussed in an earlier blog post (Germany vs Germany) Germany had been occupied and divided following the Second World War: West Germany was established as a capitalist democracy economically, ideologically and militarily allied to the USA, Britain and France while East Germany became a communist satellite state of the USSR. The pre-war capital, Berlin, was similarly divided despite its location within East Germany and this political and military division was made tangible with the construction of the Berlin Wall by East Germany and the USSR in 1961. Prior to its construction there had been widespread emigration from East to West leading to a talent drain in key industries accompanied by understandable fears for the already ailing East German economy.

Although the political tension between East and West intensified throughout the 1950s and 1960s the same cannot be said for the two German nations’ sporting relations. Until 1968 a United Team of Germany included athletes from both sides of the divide in the Olympic Games with the two football teams competing in a play-off to represent Germany between 1960 and 1968. In 1960 the West won and reached the quarter-finals but this was bettered by the East in 1964 who reached the semi-finals and took home the bronze medal. Neither nation qualified in 1968 but in the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich both sides not only qualified (West Germany automatically as hosts) but went on to meet each other in the second round group stage. In this ‘must win’ match East Germany triumphed 3-2 and went on to share the bronze medal with the USSR.

The exclusion of professional athletes in Olympic football gave East Germany an advantage over their Western neighbours as the East German league, like all communist sporting institutions, remained an amateur organisation. In the FIFA World Cup, where no such limitations were in place, East Germany failed to qualify for the 1966 and 1970 finals tournaments while West Germany finished as runners-up and in third place respectively. In 1972 they won the European Championship and, as hosts of the 1974 FIFA World Cup, they were not required to qualify for the finals. East Germany topped a qualification group including Romania, Finland and Albania and joined their neighbours in the draw for the group stage. When both sides were drawn together in Group 1 there were fears that East Germany would withdraw from the tournament but these were quickly allayed by the nation’s government who confirmed their participation.

The fixture schedule ensured that the two German teams would play out the last fixture in their group. West Germany beat both Chile and Australia in their first two games while East Germany defeated Australia and drew with Chile. However, a 0-0 draw between the two non-German sides played a few hours before their meeting on June 22nd meant that both West Germany and East Germany were now guaranteed a place in the second round and would be only competing for top spot in the group and, probably more significantly, sporting and political bragging rights. In front of 62,000 fans in Hamburg the East German team ran out the 1-0 winners of a tightly-fought match thanks to a goal from midfielder Jürgen Sparwasser.

As the quote at the start of this post states although East Germany topped the group they were faced with a much tougher second round stage than their neighbours being drawn against the Netherlands, Brazil and Argentina. They suffered defeats against the Dutch and Brazilians but gained a creditable draw with Argentina before exiting the tournament. West Germany won all three of their second round games after making significant changes to their line-up and formation following the defeat to East Germany and it was with this system that they defeated the lauded Netherlands in the final. East Germany went on to win gold in the 1976 Summer Olympic football tournament but failed to qualify for another World Cup. Despite West German desire for a rematch the two German teams never met again in a full international before German reunification in 1990 although shortly beforehand they had been drawn together in the qualification stage for the 1992 European Championship. Reunification not only led to East Germany’s withdrawal from the tournament but also ensured that the communist East remained undefeated against the capitalist West on the football pitch.

Commentator's Curse: “The key thing was to learn the value of economy with words and to never insult the viewer by telling them what they can already see” - the words of the late great Richie Benaud. While Benaud was speaking more about his experience as a cricket commentator than commentary in general I feel it is advice that would help those bleating along to what has, in my opinion, been one of the most enthralling football tournaments in years. The games have been of such quality that Mark Lawrenson's hackneyed grumbling and Clive Tyldesley's hammy attempts to heighten tension are serving only to take away from the entertainment and drama. At least we haven't had to endure the latter screaming "ROOOOOOOONEY" this time around thanks to the youthful and considerably more likeable make up of the England team. It might even be coming home.

Moving forward: If you're enjoying this blog (or just enduring it) and want to get involved please feel free. I'm more than happy to look into any suggestions you may have for topics or, better still, share your work if you fancy writing a post about a particular team, tournament or match with a political backdrop. Drop me a note below if you're keen.

1930 FIFA World Cup: All The King's Men

“Of course, he loved luxury; being born to privilege he expected nothing less than the grand lifestyle he saw in the other courts of Europe…Carol liked to present an impressive and populist persona to the public, wearing garish military uniforms adorned with medals, and to be the benefactor of every philanthropic endeavour in the land. He loved parades and grandiose festivals and watched them closely, but he was not taken in by these events as more than shows of his power”

Buccur, Marie: Carol II; Fischer, Bernd Jurgen (ed.): Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe, (Purdue, 2007), p.91

Football administration in the 1930s can be seen in two ways. The more positive view would suggest that the organisation of both FIFA and national football associations has now moved on from the years of aristocratic influence over meritocracy and moved with the times in line with current social and political views. On the other hand one only has to look into comments made by the English FA’s Martin Glenn earlier this year to see that some of the game’s leading administrators might not have moved that far from the age of totalitarianism. What is certain is that the very first FIFA World Cup held in Uruguay in 1930 bore very little resemblance to the modern day tournament.

For starters there was no qualification tournament, and Instead, FIFA invited all of its member nations to apply for entry into the tournament by the deadline of February 28th 1930. There was a strong response from the Americas but, due to the length of the sea voyage required to reach Uruguay, there was little interest among European nations. Additionally the ‘Home Nations’ of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland had all recently resigned from FIFA and, despite the best efforts of the game’s governing body, their self-imposed exile from the World Cup competition lasted until 1950. The personal intervention of FIFA’s President and Vice-President, Jules Rimet and Rodolphe Seedrayers, eventually persuaded their native France and Belgium respectively to enter this tournament alongside Yugoslavia and Romania – two teams who had only played their first international matches in the early 1920s.

But Romania were not just in the tournament because of an absence of leading European teams. A coup d’état at the start of June 1930 had led to the replacement of the Romanian King Michael I with his father, Carol II, who had renounced his claim to the throne only five years earlier to pursue his extramarital affair with Magda Lupescu. In a bid to further establish his, and Romania’s, presence on the international stage he insisted on the nation’s football team’s entrance into the inaugural FIFA World Cup and, on June 21st 1930, the Romanian team boarded the SS Conte Verde in Genoa bound for Uruguay. The ship went on to collect the French, Belgian and Brazilian teams en route as well as the trophy, a number of FIFA officials and the tournament’s three European referees.

However, Carol II’s role in Romania’s participation in the 1930 FIFA World Cup is believed to have gone beyond securing them a place in the tournament. In order to ensure the services of the country’s most able players he issued a decree allowing them three months’ absence from work to allow for travel to and from Uruguay as well as their competition in the tournament itself. Furthermore he personally guaranteed resumption of employment to the team’s players upon their return to Romania. This is almost certainly true but speculation remains about the make-up of the squad itself. Although coached and managed by Constantin Rădulescu, who also served as an assistant referee in two of the games in Uruguay, the longstanding belief is that Carol II, rather than Rădulescu, allegedly handpicked the Romanian squad.

This level of involvement in team affairs was certainly in step with Carol’s approach to his reign. His reputation as a playboy had started during his time in the Romanian army in the First World War where he deserted in order to marry the daughter of one of his generals. It progressed following the annulment of his first marriage when he married Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark before abandoning both her and his claim to the throne to elope with Magda Lupescu. Consequently, in a desperate bid to shed this image on his ascension to the Romanian throne, he set about establishing a personality cult where he was portrayed as a messianic figure set to deliver his people ‘an eternal Romania’. In reality his government shifted towards the far-right and adopted increasingly anti-Semitic policies as it aligned with Nazi Germany; this paved the way for his eventual abdication and the wartime military dictatorship of Ion Antonescu. Although Carol II appeared to be actively involved in the governance of his country during his reign it is highly unlikely that he was involved in the selection of the Romanian squad for the World Cup in Uruguay. Not so much because it would be out of character for the egotistical monarch but more because of the lack of time he had spent in Romania prior to his ascension to the throne on June 8th 1930: a mere two weeks before the team set off for Uruguay.

Regardless of who was responsible for team selection Romania beat Peru 3-1 in their first match of the group stage with Adalbert Deşu scoring within fifty seconds of the kick-off. They were soundly beaten 4-0 by the hosts and eventual winners, Uruguay, in their next game and therefore exited the tournament. The Romanian team, under the management of Constantin Rădulescu, qualified for the next two tournaments, in Italy in 1934 and France in 1938, where they were eliminated in the first round by Czechoslovakia and Cuba respectively.

Although Carol II is unlikely to have picked the squad for the inaugural FIFA World Cup in Uruguay his insistence in their participation set a precedent for the involvement of heads of state in the affairs of their national teams. In subsequent tournaments Italy, under the fascist dictatorship of Benito Mussolini, won back to back trophies amid displays of fervent nationalism particularly when they hosted the tournament finals in 1934. And while Carol II’s Romania were not as successful on the pitch, the playboy monarch paved the way for the World Cup to be used as a platform for the promotion of a leader and a nation in the tournaments that followed.

Shaqiri, Shaqiri: You may have missed Friday's game between Serbia and Switzerland (I have to admit I did) and even those of you who tuned in may have missed Granit Xhaka and Xherdan Shaqiri's celebrations after two very nicely taken goals. Both players made the sign of the Albanian eagle, partly to celebrate their Kosovan heritage and partly to wind up their opponents, and have subsequently been hit with a fine from the bastion of morality known as FIFA. Yesterday a crowdfunding campaign was set up to pay these fines for the players and I doubt that we have heard the last of this incident. In the meantime feel free to enjoy a picture of Xherdan Shaqiri which should serve as an inspiration to all aspiring footballers.

Moving forward: If you're enjoying this blog (or just enduring it) and want to get involved please feel free. I'm more than happy to look into any suggestions you may have for topics or, better still, share your work if you fancy writing a post about a particular team, tournament or match with a political backdrop. Drop me a note below if you're keen or contact me on Twitter @mannyhawks.

1970 FIFA World Cup: La Guerra del Fútbol

“It is war – well, ok, it’s not a war, but it is the biggest sporting prize you can have. You have to be accomplished, like a platoon going out on a mission. We’ve got eleven, they’ve got eleven – and you’ve got to get out there and steal the goodies and get back before they know.”

Bobby Robson quoted in Davies, Pete: All Played Out, (Mandarin, 1991), p.89

Over the years comparisons of football to war have been used within the game for a wide range of reasons. In the above quote the then England manager, Bobby Robson, used war to justify his team selection in the build up to the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy where the traditional, battling characteristics of centre-half Terry Butcher were seen as preferable to the continental sweepers revolutionising the defences of the German, Dutch and Italian sides. War has also acted as a metaphor for particularly violent matches such as The Battle of Santiago between Chile and Italy in 1962 and, more recently, The Battle of Nuremberg between Portugal and the Netherlands in 2006.

However, during the qualification stages of the 1970 FIFA World Cup, an actual war broke out between the Central American nations of El Salvador and Honduras following the semi-final round of the CONCACAF (Confederation of North American and Caribbean Association Football) qualifying tournament. The two sides had been drawn together having finished top of their respective first round groups. Honduras had won the first game 1-0 at home and El Salvador won the return fixture 3-0. Despite El Salvador’s superior goal difference a third play-off match took place in Mexico, the host nation for the upcoming finals, on Thursday 26th June 1969 where the Salvadorans triumphed 3-2 after extra time and advanced to a final two-legged play-off against Haiti.

On the morning of the game in Mexico City the Salvadoran government suspended all diplomatic ties with their Honduran counterparts stating that over 11,000 Salvadorans had been forced to flee Honduras during the period following the second leg match in San Salvador. The Salvadoran government not only accused the Hondurans of rape, pillage and murder of their people but also of a lack of punishment for these crimes and a failure to guarantee reparations for the hardships they had endured. To say that these statements had fuelled tensions between the two nations ahead of the winner takes all qualifier would be a huge understatement.

Just over two weeks later, on Monday 14th July, the Salvadoran Air Force launched a military offensive against Honduras by bombing the Toncontin International Airport in order to delay a Honduran response. As the dust settled the Salvadoran army, which significantly outnumbered its Honduran enemies, invaded at three separate points along the border. They pushed the native forces back nearly five miles taking control of nine cities within twenty-four hours and established themselves within striking distance of the Honduran capital Tegucigalpa. The Honduran counter-offensive, supported by neighbouring Nicaragua, began in earnest the next day and by the end of Wednesday 16th July many Salvadoran oil depots had been destroyed by the Honduran air force. A ceasefire was agreed on Friday 18th July although it would be early August before Salvadoran troops were withdrawn from Honduran territory.

Whilst the Honduran government agreed to protect the remaining Salvadoran people within its borders it refused to pay the reparations demanded by the politicians in San Salvador. Both sides suffered high casualties from what became known as La Guerra del Fútbol (The Football War) and the Salvadoran government struggled to cope financially with the subsequent influx of refugees. Trade between both nations was suspended causing the suspension of the Central American Common Market which had been established in response to the Communist revolution in Cuba in 1953. The Football War has also been cited as one of the long term causes of the devastating Salvadoran Civil War which lasted from 1979 to 1992 with the government became increasingly militaristic throughout the 1970s. An official peace treaty was signed in 1980 and new borders established, granting more land to El Salvador, in 1998.

The Football War suggests that these two Central American countries entered into this devastating conflict purely off the back of results in the World Cup qualification process but the causes, needless to say, were far more complicated. Honduran land reforms in the 1960s had seen several Salvadorans expelled from what they had regarded as their property (although in legal terms it was not) and migrant labourers, many of whom had settled and started families in Honduras, forcibly ejected from the country. The pressure on the Honduran government to enact these land reforms stemmed from the confederation of several of the country’s major landowners, including the United Fruit Company, into FENAGH (the National Federation of Farmers and Livestock-Farmers of Honduras) who pursued a militant anti-peasantry and anti-Salvadoran agenda. The timing of the World Cup qualifying matches between the two nations had simply intensified the ill-feeling between them and the Salvadoran victory in Mexico City undoubtedly worsened the situation for their remaining compatriots in Honduras.

Following the conflict El Salvador qualified for the 1970 FIFA World Cup finals after defeating Haiti across three games in September and October 1969: in the tournament they lost all three group games to Belgium, the USSR and hosts Mexico and failed to score a single goal. Their only other appearance at a World Cup finals tournament was in Spain in 1982, where they qualified alongside Honduras, but once again they exited at the group stage after losing all three games. At least on this occasion they managed to register a goal courtesy of Ramirez Zapata in a record 10-1 loss to Hungary. Honduras were also eliminated in the group stage of the 1982 tournament albeit with a considerably better record picking up draws against the hosts and eventual group winners Northern Ireland. Whilst relations between the two countries remain tense concerning territory in the Gulf of Fonseca a recent friendly between them, a 1-0 win for El Salvador in Texas, thankfully passed without incident.

Public History: This blog was initially started as part of my ongoing MA in Contemporary History and Politics as a proposal for a potential public history project (see below). Now we're into World Cups my Dad actually remembers he's been sharing his views on events. For example, the 1970 FIFA World Cup: "All I remember about the 1970 World Cup is Bobby Moore and the bracelet, Gordon Banks’ incredible save and Peter Bonetti. Opposition fans used to sing ‘Blue is the colour, football is the game, we lost the World Cup, Bonetti was to blame’ to Chelsea’s followers long after the event”. Which seems fair enough - he did play for Chelsea after all.

The Real Quiz: Well I was only four goals out in my prediction for the opening game of the Amnesty International Trophy. Besides Denis Cheryshev's excellent second goal I feel the highlight was another Russian's facial expressions throughout his country's resounding victory.

Make of that what you will.

Moving forward: If you're enjoying this blog (or just enduring it) and want to get involved please feel free. I'm more than happy to look into any suggestions you may have for topics or, better still, share your work if you fancy writing a post about a particular team, tournament or match with a political backdrop. Drop me a note below if you're keen or contact me on Twitter @mannyhawks.

1966 FIFA World Cup: The Wind of Change

“Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ address has gone down…as one of the great visionary speeches in post-war history…As well as signalling a major policy change in respect of African decolonisation, it declared that South Africa was now so far out of step with the trajectory of world events that Britain could no longer be counted upon to lend support to apartheid in the international arena.”

Dubow, Saul: Macmillan, Verwoerd, and the 1960 ‘Wind of Change’ Speech; The Historical Journal, 54:4, (Cambridge, 2011)

Whilst British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan’s ‘Wind of Change’ speech on February 3rd 1960 cannot be said to have actually started the decolonisation process in Africa it provided momentum to the different independence movements across the continent. Within five years the vast majority of British African colonies had been granted independence with a similar pattern repeated amongst former French and Belgian colonies and, after nearly a hundred years of European colonial rule, much of the African continent was back in the hands of its native peoples.

The process of establishing these newly independent nations was not straightforward by any means and, for many, the struggle to establish representative democracies still continues. By the start of the qualification process for the 1966 FIFA World Cup only fifteen African countries were in a position to enter the tournament but this was still the greatest number of entrants from the continent in the history of the competition so far.  These included Ghana, Morocco and the United Arab Republic (Egypt) who had all competed in the 1964 Summer Olympics in Japan. Morocco, who had come close to qualifying for the 1962 World Cup, were soundly beaten by both Hungary and Yugoslavia but Ghana and the United Arab Republic both advanced from the group stages earning impressive draws, against Argentina and Brazil, respectively along the way. They faced each other in the quarter-finals with the United Arab Republic winning 5-1. The United Arab Republic were beaten 6-0 in the semi-finals by Hungary, the eventual winners, and finished fourth in the tournament after losing 3-1 to a united German team in the bronze medal match.

The 1964 Summer Olympics had proved that these teams could compete with the European and South American elite in a major tournament. Unfortunately in the qualification process for the 1962 World Cup FIFA’s executive members had been unconvinced of the African sides’ ability and shown little interest in facilitating their path to the finals. The scheduled first round tie between the neighbouring United Arab Republic and Sudan ended with both teams withdrawing from the tournament due to FIFA’s refusal to rearrange their fixtures around the monsoon season. After beating Nigeria and Tunisia respectively Ghana and Morocco faced each other in a play-off with the latter emerging victorious. However, Morocco were still required to face Spain in a further play-off match to earn a place at the finals which they lost 4-2 across two legs. In comparison, Spain had seen Denmark and Austria withdraw from their qualifying group leaving them a two-legged play-off against Wales which they duly won 3-2 on aggregate.

The formative years of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) had not proved to be easy. It faced opposition to its representation in the FIFA Congress from both European and South American federations who argued that the standard of African (and Asian) football was not worthy of such an elevated position on the international stage. And, within the African continent, it faced the challenge of apartheid in South Africa which led to the nation’s exclusion from CAF tournaments and World Cup qualification groups. However, the beginning of rapid decolonisation in the 1960s strengthened both the federation’s numbers and its bargaining power with FIFA. Ahead of the 1966 World Cup there was a real aspiration for a guaranteed place in the tournament finals as an incentive for the fifteen teams entering the qualification process.

Although Macmillan’s “wind of change” may have been blowing through the African continent in the 1960s, unfortunately, it was yet to reach FIFA in Zurich. The CAF qualification rounds would once again lead to an inter-conference play-off round this time against the winners of the Asia/Oceania group. All fifteen of the teams in CAF’s groups understandably withdrew from the tournament in protest. The South African team, who had initially been drawn in the Asia/Oceania group, had been suspended from FIFA in 1964 because of their policy of apartheid and so the World Cup finals would once again fail to include an African side. North Korea won the Asia/Oceania group and went on to secure a famous group stage victory against Italy in the 1966 World Cup finals in England before losing 5-3 to Portugal in the quarter-finals. North Korea had raced into a 3-0 lead before half-time only for the Portuguese striker Eusébio to score four times in a remarkable comeback for the European side. Eusébio was the tournament’s top scorer with nine goals from six games. He was also born and raised in the Portuguese African colony of Mozambique.

Ahead of the 1970 FIFA World Cup it was clear that the qualification process needed to change to better reflect the postcolonial world and eleven African nations entered the CAF qualification stage this time with a guaranteed spot in the final tournament in Mexico available to the winners. In the final round Morocco finished ahead of Nigeria and Sudan to become the first African nation to compete in a World Cup finals tournament since Egypt in 1934. Although the 1966 edition of the FIFA World Cup continues to be the standard by which every subsequent England team and manager is judged by it also signalled the beginning of the end of European and South American hegemony over what has been billed as a global tournament. While the qualification process for the FIFA World Cup finals still remains unfairly balanced towards these sides the growing strength of African and Asian sides serves as a reminder of the game’s worldwide appeal and significance.

The Real Quiz: This week heralds the start of the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia which could very easily create a whole host of potential articles for this blog. With that in mind what better way to start than with the tournament opener Russia v Saudi Arabia on Thursday 14th June? The tournament’s two lowest ranked teams will go head to head in Moscow united by their love of attractive football and civil liberties. I’m going with 1-0 Russia because I’m nervous to say otherwise in an Internet publication.

Moving forward: If you're enjoying this blog (or just enduring it) and want to get involved please feel free. I'm more than happy to look into any suggestions you may have for topics or, better still, share your work if you fancy writing a post about a particular team, tournament or match with a political backdrop. Drop me a note below if you're keen or contact me on Twitter @mannyhawks.

1958 FIFA World Cup: Israel vs Withdrawals

“Not since 1958, when Brazil would make our hearts break, but now that France has arrived, it feels so good to be alive.”

Manic Street Preachers: Together Stronger (C’mon Wales), (Sony, 2016)

When Wales qualified for Euro 2016 marked the end of a fifty-six year journey to reach a major international tournament and it’s fair to say that their march to the semi-finals in France somewhat justified the Manic Street Preachers’ optimism detailed above. Their qualification for the expanded 24-team tournament in 2016 was relatively straightforward, finishing second in their group and thus securing an automatic place in the finals. However, the same cannot be said about their path to the 1958 FIFA World Cup tournament in Sweden. The sixth edition of the global competition remains the only time that all four British nations have ever qualified for a major international tournament. But this fascinating anomaly lapses into insignificance compared to the story of Israel’s qualification campaign which fell at the last hurdle in a play-off against Wales.

Qualification groups for earlier World Cup tournaments were regularly hit by withdrawals for numerous reasons ranging from underfunded national associations to foreign invasions. In fact the 1958 qualifying tournament was the first since the World Cup’s conception where the European groups, now under the control of UEFA, were completed without any withdrawals. This was not the case elsewhere. Venezuela withdrew from their group setting up a straight play-off between Brazil (the eventual winners) and Peru. Until 1970 there were limited finals places available to nations outside of Europe and South America (more on that another time) and consequently ten teams from Asia and Africa were forced to compete for one spot in Sweden. Australia and the Republic of China (now Chinese Taipei/Taiwan) withdrew from their preliminary group setting up four home and away matches between the eight remaining teams.

Turkey had previously competed in the European qualification groups and, when drawn against Israel, withdrew from the tournament in protest at being forced to compete against non-European opposition. Cyprus, still a British protectorate, also withdrew from their tie with Egypt. This was somewhat unsurprising considering the fraught political situation in the country at the time where the British government did little to quell rising tensions between Greek and Turkish Cypriots prior to the granting of independence in 1960. Where games of football were actually played Indonesia scraped past China PR thanks to their superior goal average and Sudan beat Syria to advance to the next round of qualifiers. Indonesia were drawn against Israel and Egypt against their neighbours Sudan.

Once again Israel would progress without kicking a ball. Indonesia refused to play the first leg of their tie within Israeli borders and appealed to FIFA to host the game on a neutral ground. When FIFA declined this request Indonesia withdrew from the tournament and subsequently did not enter the qualification process for the 1962 or 1966 World Cup tournaments. Indonesia’s refusal to play in Israel was somewhat vaguely put down to ‘political reasons’ although there was little political interaction between the two nations to speak of. Whether the Indonesian team were attempting to show solidarity with the displaced Palestinian Arab community or protesting against recent Israeli military action in Egypt it is impossible to say. What is certain is that Egypt also withdrew at this stage which set up a final match between Israel and Sudan.

The Israeli military action was the country’s involvement in the Suez Crisis which is perhaps better remembered for its impact on the political career of British Prime Minister Anthony Eden and for marking the beginning of the decline of Britain’s international standing. In response to Egypt’s decision in 1956 to nationalise the Suez Canal the British and French, then majority shareholders in this lucrative waterway, hatched a plan to reclaim it under the guise of protecting it from an Israeli invasion. The British and French invasion failed due to a lack of US support and signalled the beginning of the end of British imperial dominance in the Middle East and beyond. However, the level of deception and subterfuge by the British, French and Israeli governments would, understandably, not be readily forgotten in the region. Egypt’s neighbours to the south, Sudan, were among those unimpressed with Israel’s involvement in the Suez Crisis and subsequently refused to play the Israeli team in the final qualifier.

In previous years this would have secured Israel a place in the finals. However, shortly before the qualification process began FIFA had introduced a new rule stating that, apart from the reigning champions and hosts, all teams must play at least one qualification match before playing  in the final tournament. Their decision was for a ‘lucky loser’ to be drawn at random from the European teams who had finished second in their qualification groups. Belgium were drawn first but declined the invitation which presented Wales with the opportunity to play Israel. On January 15th Israel played their first game of the entire qualification tournament in Ramat Gan against Wales and duly lost 2-0. A month later Wales won by the same score in Cardiff to secure their place in the finals in Sweden.

Israel’s absence from the 1958 FIFA World Cup was hardly the most high profile effect of the Suez Crisis but it undoubtedly set a precedent for the political turmoil which would become synonymous with the nation’s football team. As a result of the ongoing Arab-Israeli conflict several countries refused to play Israel and the team were expelled from Asian Football Confederation tournaments in 1974 after both Kuwait and North Korea forfeited second round matches against them at that year’s Asian Games. Israel were eventually brought under UEFA’s jurisdiction in 1980 but, barring one appearance in the World Cup group stage in 1970, have failed to qualify for another major international tournament.

Sweepstakes and kits: In the first of what I presume will be many sweepstakes I take part in for this World Cup my wife and I drew the questionable trinity of Mexico, Portugal and Senegal. As well as bringing to mind the Simpsons episode 'The Cartridge Family' which starts with the two of these three teams battling it out to determine who is the greatest on earth it also gave me an excuse to pick up Senegal's excellent home shirt for the tournament. But, let's be honest, we all want/need the Nigeria shirt right?

Moving forward: If you're enjoying this blog (or just enduring it) and want to get involved please feel free. I'm more than happy to look into any suggestions you may have for topics or, better still, share your work if you fancy writing a post about a particular team, tournament or match with a political backdrop. Drop me a note below if you're keen or contact me on Twitter @mannyhawks.

1950 FIFA World Cup: The Jewel in the Crown

“’The jewel in the crown’ of the Empire was rapidly abandoned despite the pretensions of Britain’s greatness…The financial cost of holding India was increasingly too great and the moral costs of real repression unacceptable to Liberal England as the response to Dyer’s massacre at Amritsar in 1919 showed. Perhaps more important still it had ceased to be a vital economic interest…Only imperial romantics like Churchill opposed the granting of dominion status.”

Pearce, Malcolm and Stewart, Geoffrey: British Political History 1867-1990, Democracy and Decline, (Routledge, 1992), p.556

The 1950 FIFA World Cup was the first edition of the tournament since 1938 and, more importantly, the first since the end of the Second World War. While several notable teams had not participated in the tournaments of the 1930s due to geographical constraints (or inflated ideas of their own superiority) the reasons behind a number of teams’ absence in 1950 came as a direct result of the preceding conflict. Germany, both occupied and divided by the Allied Powers, were banned from taking part as were Japan for similar reasons. The Soviet Union, Hungary and Czechoslovakia all refused to enter in part due to the devastating impact of the Second World War on their countries but also due to the increasing hostility between the communist East and the capitalist West. Yugoslavia, as it did in many cases throughout the Cold War, bucked the trend. The impact of the Second World War extended to the location of the 1950 tournament with Brazil selected as hosts from a fairly narrow pool of countries with the necessary infrastructure in place to host a major sporting event.

The end of the Second World War signalled the beginning of the end of the age of empires and in Group 10 of the qualification tournament a different story began to unfold. As the war in the Pacific drew to a conclusion the Philippines regained its independence from the defeated Japanese Empire. Indonesia was also granted independence from the Japanese as well as the Netherlands who had officially held the territory as the Dutch East Indies since 1800. Perhaps the most significant, however, was the secession of the Indian subcontinent by the British Empire in 1947 which led to the foundation of modern day India and Pakistan as well as East Bengal (now Bangladesh) shortly followed by Burma (now Myanmar) in 1948. In consequence the four Asian teams to initially enter the qualification stages of the 1950 FIFA World Cup were all newly independent nations intent on making a statement of their sporting and political intentions in a postcolonial world.

Despite the fact that Indonesia had appeared, albeit briefly, as the Dutch East Indies at the 1938 tournament in France (suffering a 6-0 defeat at the hands of Hungary) it was India who now, following the Second World War, made the earliest impression on the game. In the 1948 Summer Olympic football tournament India drew France in the first round and were a minute away from taking the game to extra time thanks to an equalising goal from Sarangapani Raman. Unfortunately an 89th minute winner from René Persillon denied them the opportunity to take on the hosts Great Britain, their former colonial rulers, in the next round. Nevertheless the Indian team had turned heads in their first international match following independence a feat drawing even more praise considering that several members of the Indian team played in bare feet or just socks. When you see a 1940s football, or the heavyweight boots of their opponents, you’ll perhaps appreciate how impressive this actually was.

However, before even one of these weighty footballs could be kicked in Group 10 the Filipino, Indonesian and Burmese teams withdrew from the competition. Israel, Syria and Turkey had been drawn in separate groups and, despite appearing in the 1948 Olympics, Afghanistan and South Korea did not enter the qualifying process. This allowed India to qualify for the final tournament at the first attempt, despite being unopposed, and on May 22nd 1950 were drawn in Group C alongside 1934 and 1938 World Cup winners Italy, 1948 Olympic gold medallists Sweden and 1949 Copa América runners-up Paraguay. In today’s terms this could be seen as the tournament’s ‘Group of Death’ but India had already proved they could hold their own on the international stage against even the strongest opposition.

But the Indian team of 1950 did not get to test themselves against these lauded opponents for, shortly after the draw for the group stage was made, the team was withdrawn from the competition by the All India Football Federation. A number of reasons were given including the federation’s desire to focus on the Summer Olympic football tournaments, which were still seen as the superior international competition, and the cost involved to transport the squad to Brazil for the competition although FIFA claimed to have offered a substantial contribution to the travel expenses. For a long time the belief was that India had withdrawn following FIFA’s decision to ban footballers from playing barefoot after the 1948 Olympics although this had been refuted by Sailen Manna, the team’s captain at the time, who instead pointed to a lack of adequate training and preparation: a fair enough point considering India had not played another international game since their defeat by France.

Although it wouldn’t be beyond FIFA to have introduced a law which hindered its less established members in favour of more established nations (and the barefoot ban undoubtedly had this aim) it seems unlikely that the Indian team would have been withdrawn solely on these grounds. The fact that four recently decolonised countries had even entered the qualifying process was a stark reminder to the slowly collapsing European empires that times really were changing and there would have been a collective sigh of relief when the likes of Italy and Sweden did not have to face the potential embarrassment of losing to India in Brazil. Unfortunately India have never again come close to qualifying for the FIFA World Cup Finals and have rarely encountered non-Asian opposition since the 1960 Olympics in Rome. Don’t bet against that changing in the near future.

Preserving football's heritage: The 1948 Olympic football tournament that features prominently in this post involved the use of some fairly surprising stadia. India's matcg against France took place in Essex at Lynn Road, Ilford a ground which no longer exists. Another stadium hosting matches during this tournament was Champion Hill the south London home of Dulwich Hamlet. The delightful Meadow Residential evicted Hamlet from the ground earlier this year and have continued to wage a vicious campaign against the club and its supporters. A similar situation faces Clapton FC in their fight to remain at London's oldest senior football ground The Old Spotted Dog. Find out more about both campaigns by following @saveDHFC and @SaveTheOSD on Twitter and please do your bit to support two proud clubs.

Moving forward: If you're enjoying this blog (or just enduring it) and want to get involved please feel free. I'm more than happy to look into any suggestions you may have for topics or, better still, share your work if you fancy writing a post about a particular team, tournament or match with a political backdrop. Drop me a note below if you're keen or contact me on Twitter @mannyhawks.